Consul

Consul

A section of the Fasti Capitolini, a list of the highest offices in the Republic and early empire primarily listing consuls, but also listing censor, dictator, triumvir, magister equitum, and tribunes with consular powers. The central column lists consuls in the late Second Punic War, including Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus fourth from the top for his consulship in 205 BCE. From the Musei Capitolini.
A section of the Fasti Capitolini, a list of the highest offices in the Republic and early empire primarily listing consuls, but also listing censor, dictator, triumvir, magister equitum, and tribunes with consular powers. The central column lists consuls in the late Second Punic War, including Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus fourth from the top for his consulship in 205 BCE. From the Musei Capitolini.

The consul (plural: consuls) was the highest elected office in the Roman Republic. The term is derived from the Latin consulare, to take council. The office of consul was created with the abolition of the monarchy as a means of distributing the powers and authorities of the former king in the new republic. Two positions of consul were created so that a single man could not wield absolute power (though provisions would be made for one man to temporarily wield this power as dictator in times of crisis). Two consuls were elected by the comitia centuriata (the centuriate assembly) and confirmed by the comitia curiata (the curiate assembly) for terms of one year. The two consuls were effectively equal, holding veto power over the each other’s actions. They would alternate primary leadership monthly, though.

A section of the Fasti Capitolini showing offices from about 49 to 44 BCE, including three consulships of Julius Caesar. And a notation for the death of Quintus Fabius Maximus on his last day in office in 45 BCE (mortuus est on the third line from the bottom). Musei Capitolini.
A section of the Fasti Capitolini showing offices from about 49 to 44 BCE, including three consulships of Julius Caesar. And a notation for the death of Quintus Fabius Maximus on his last day in office in 45 BCE (mortuus est on the third line from the bottom). Musei Capitolini.

Initially, the powers of the consuls were extensive, again effectively replacing the king. They were essentially the head of the Roman government during the Republic and were the highest single authority for military, administrative, judicial, and executive power. As the Republic progressed, however, powers were delegated to other offices that were still subordinate to the consul. Censors were created to conduct the census and praetores to deal with most of the judicial responsibilities. While still the primary commanders during war time, the ability to lead armies was also granted to lower offices. If a consul died during his term or was removed from office, a consul suffectus was elected to finish out the term.

A fragment of a consular list with the names of the two consuls suffecti named by Galba in 68 CE; Gaius Bellicus Natalis and Publius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. Musei Capitolini.
A fragment of a consular list with the names of the two consuls suffecti named by Galba in 68 CE; Gaius Bellicus Natalis and Publius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. Musei Capitolini.

The consuls were largely replaced for a time by consular tribunes, a council of more than two consuls, in the mid-5th through mid-4th century BCE, before the dual consul system was reintroduced. Around this time, the requirement of patrician status was removed and plebeians were then allowed to be elected to the office. In the imperial period, the office became largely ceremonial, as the emperor would wield most of the power afforded to the consuls in the Republic. It was still, however, an important office to hold for the politically ambitious. The consul was still elected in the empire, but this was typically a formality to confirm the choices made by the emperor.

Consul was the second highest office of the cursus honorum, a sequential order of public offices for those with political ambition, behind censor. The minimum age for election as consul was originally fourty-two in the Republic. In the empire, this was dropped to thirty-two, though an emperor could completely ignore the age requirement for his choices.